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Episode 3: The Roman Period

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Hello and welcome back to The History of Bosnia and Herzegovina Podcast! This is Episode 3, and I’m your host, Haris Porčić. I hope you enjoyed the last episode, where we detailed the multiple Illyrian tribes residing in the Balkans and their relationship with the ancient Romans and Greeks. Today, I’m picking up right where we left off—looking at how the Illyrians rose to power and eventually clashed with Rome. It would take centuries of back-and-forth fighting before Rome fully conquered these lands and turned them into a Roman province. So, let’s jump right into it.

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The conflict between the Illyrians and Rome started in 229 BCE. By 27 BCE, the region was fully absorbed into the Roman province of Illyricum, and the annexation was completed by 9 CE. Around 40 to 70 CE, Illyricum was split into two provinces: Pannonia in the north, which covered parts of present-day Bosnia along the Sava River, and Dalmatia in the south, which encompassed most of the territory we now consider Bosnia and Herzegovina. [7]

But to really understand these confrontations, we need to look at Rome itself. The Roman Republic was in a near-constant state of warfare, starting with battles against the Etruscans. The city of Rome was dramatically sacked by the Gauls in 387 BCE. That event spurred a new, aggressive expansionism. Rome eventually controlled the entire Italian peninsula and reached far across the Mediterranean—west to Iberia, south into Africa, and east into Asia.

Rome’s greatest enemies included Carthage, famously led by Hannibal. They fought three Punic Wars against Carthage, ultimately defeating them in 202 BCE. Other adversaries at various times were the Macedonians, Lusitanians, Egypt, and a handful of Greek kingdoms. During these big wars, Illyrian lands remained mostly untouched—for a while.

The Roman Republic lasted almost 500 years. During this time there were only 8 years of peace. Rome didn’t fight one enemy at a time; they fought on multiple fronts. At the height of the period we’re exploring, Rome had a population of over 4 million, and kept six field armies in motion: roughly 90,000 legionaries backed by another 150,000 allied troops. Those soldiers marched in some of the best gear of the ancient world; Rome was the first power to field chainmail on a massive scale, and its interlocking iron rings blunted enemy blades with ruthless efficiency.

Yet hardware alone didn’t make Rome unstoppable—its political engine did. Each year, citizens elected two consuls to share supreme civil and military command. With only twelve months to etch their names into history, ambitious consuls rushed to win glory through conquest, ensuring that Rome launched a fresh campaign every campaigning season. Fueled by relentless leadership and iron discipline, Rome’s war machine ground on, year after relentless year. The Illyrians didn’t stand a chance.

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By around 250 BCE, several Illyrian tribes had formed a proto-state spanning from central Albania up to the Neretva River valley in Herzegovina. This kingdom was led by King Agron, of the Ardiaei tribe. He financed his realm largely through piracy on the Adriatic Sea. The Greek historian Polybius regarded him as the most powerful Illyrian king up to that time. [18] He ruled over other Illyrian tribes, and the Ardiaei were at the height of their power during his rule. In the Balkans, he was one of the more powerful kings. 

In 231 BCE, Agron’s forces fought against the Aetolian League (a coalition of Greek tribes and cities). Polybius records that the Illyrians led 5,000 men aboard 100 ships called “lembi.” The Illyrians launched a single charge and easily defeated the Aetolians, then returned home with their plunder. Agron was so delighted by this victory that he celebrated with excessive drinking. Consequently, he fell ill with pleurisy—an inflammation around the lungs—and died a few days later. A cautionary tale for all of us: party responsibly. [19]

With Agron gone, his very young son Pinnes was next in line, but Pinnes was underage. Thus, his stepmother, Queen Teuta, assumed power. She was not one to sit around. She took on her neighbors, both Illyrian tribes and Greek cities, with aggression, raiding and plundering as she went. These attacks prompted Rome to send envoys demanding reparations and an end to piracy. Teuta responded that the royal army wouldn’t harm the envoys, but she could not stop Illyrian pirates—piracy was, as she claimed, a local tradition. The Roman delegation did not appreciate that answer and made some heated remarks about Rome ensuring she would control her people. In response, the Illyrians seized their ship and killed a Roman ambassador on his journey home. It was a fateful spark that would ignite the Illyrian Wars. [1]

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Rome’s first war against the Illyrian kingdom began in 229 BCE and lasted until 228 BCE. [1] It was concentrated along southern Illyria and the Adriatic coast. The Romans captured a handful of cities, and Teuta retreated to the kingdom’s capital, Rhizon, modern-day Montenegro. Content with that outcome, Rome left a local ruler in charge of the conquered territories and went back home. [4] Shortly thereafter, Illyrian envoys traveled to Rome to formalize a peace treaty.

Still, Illyria would soon rise again. Around 221 BCE, King Demetrius revived piracy, especially on Greek islands—some of which were under Roman protection—fully aware that Rome was busy elsewhere. [19] However, Demetrius anticipated a Roman response, and set up defenses of about 6,000 troops on his home island of Pharos, the modern-day Hvar in Croatia. By 218 BCE, the Romans responded and attacked Demetrius. Outnumbered, he fled to Macedonia. [2] This left Agron’s son Pinnes to rule the Illyrian kingdom as a de facto Roman client. 

Then, in 181 BCE, Gentius became king of Illyria. He allied with Macedonia to resist Rome: Macedonia provided financial support, Gentius provided men and boats. [1] By 168 BCE, Gentius took the fight to Roman-held territory in Illyria, but Rome counterattacked from both Italy and the south. [3] The Illyrians were outnumbered two to one. Gentius retreated inland, eventually surrendered, and spent the rest of his life in captivity in Italy along with his family. Though he was the last official Illyrian king, the Romans would not fully conquer all Illyrian lands for another couple of centuries.

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In 156 BCE, the Dalmatae attacked Illyrian subjects of Rome. With 12 years of peace behind them, Rome felt it was time to flex its muscles. [1] The consul Gaius Marcius Figulus led a campaign to subdue the Dalmatae, who fortified their capital, Delminium, near present-day Tomislavgrad. It took about a year of siege before another consul, Scipio, finally conquered the city. [5] As was a sad Roman custom, they decimated the area, reportedly turning it into little more than a sheep pasture. They’d come back to the same place in 118 BCE to again show off their prowess and procure a triumph.

In 129 BCE, Rome fought against the Iapodes in the northern part of Illyria. The Iapodes quickly submitted, though skirmishes continued for around 100 more years. [4] [5] These raids and acts of piracy brought about another Roman expedition in 35 BCE, led by Octavian. He crossed the Velebit mountain into the Lika River region, besieged the city of Segesta, modern-day Sisak in Croatia, for 30 days, and then returned to Rome after the city fell. [4] [6]

But Octavian wasn’t done. In 34 BCE, he moved south against the Dalmatae, culminating in battles near Promona and Sunodium, around modern-day Croatian cities of Knin and Šibenik, respectively. [4] After another victorious trip home to Rome, he again returned in 33 BCE, to advance toward the southern Illyrians near the Neretva River valley. [28] By 27 BCE, the Illyrian lands were completely under Roman control and became the province of Illyricum under Octavian’s personal rule. Constant rebellions in the region required Rome to maintain a large military presence there.

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One of the biggest Illyrian rebellions against Rome happened much later, from 6 to 9 CE. It’s known as the Batonian War, the Pannonian and Dalmatian War, the Great Illyrian Revolt, or simply the Bato Uprising. Two chieftains—both named Bato—led multiple united Illyrian tribes. One was Bato the Daesitiate, and the other was Bato the Breucian. According to Roman historian Suetonius, this conflict was the hardest Rome had faced since the Punic Wars. [1] [8]

We don’t know much about Bato the Daesitiate, other than that he was born around 35–30 BCE in what is now upper Bosnia. Many historians state that he was some sort of tribal leader with both political and military responsibilities. The war began when Rome demanded the local Illyrians send auxiliary forces to serve under Emperor Tiberius in a campaign against a Germanic tribe. [9] Bato the Daesitiate refused, defeated a Roman force, and soon joined up with Bato the Breucian. Roman records claim the Illyrians mustered 200,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, though ancient numbers are always questionable. [10]

The Illyrians split their forces into three groups: one invaded Italy, another invaded the Roman province of Macedonia, and the third stayed home to defend their territory. Rome responded by sending 10 legions—roughly 50,000 soldiers—plus auxiliaries, allies, and mercenaries, all under Tiberius’s command.

Bato the Daesitiate fought in Salona, near present-day Croatian city of Split, where he was defeated and wounded, and withdrew north. Eventually, Bato the Breucian surrendered to Rome on the bank of the river Bosna, but was subsequently captured and executed by Bato the Daesitiate for his surrender. [10] The war continued until 9 CE, focusing on Dalmatia. The mountainous terrain and narrow passes gave Illyrians a defensive advantage, but an especially harsh winter and famine eventually wore them down. [10] The final major battle was fought at Arduba, near modern-day Zenica. Conflicts among the Illyrians themselves led to tragic scenes: Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that some women, preferring death to submission, chose mass suicide by throwing themselves into a burning fire or into a river. In the end, Bato the Daesitiate surrendered after being promised amnesty. When asked why they rebelled, he famously replied: “You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves.” [9] He spent the rest of his life in Ravenna, Italy. [11] Rome then divided the province again to undermine any future Illyrian unity and heavily punished the population, reducing the region to small, scattered villages.

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Let’s fast-forward a bit and focus on the two relevant Roman provinces: Dalmatia and Pannonia. Coastal Dalmatia adopted Latin and Roman customs by the 4th century CE, but the depth of romanization varied. [12] Urban centers in Dalmatia were influenced by Rome in terms of language and architecture, but people in rural areas held on to their indigenous Illyrian languages, religions, and social structures. [13] This is a recurring theme in Balkan history: mountainous geography protected local customs from outside influences.

Dalmatia remained part of the Western Roman Empire until 454 CE, when a Roman general, Marcellinus, seized it and ruled independently until his death in 468 CE. [14] He was succeeded by his nephew, Julius Nepos, who governed until 475 CE. [15] Nepos, a native Dalmatian, is regarded by some historians as the last true Western Roman Emperor. Fascinating side note: the Latin word nepos means “nephew,” from which we derive the modern term “nepotism.” Eventually, Dalmatia fell to the Ostrogothic Kingdom under Theodoric the Great. [16]

Most of Pannonia—extending beyond modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina—remained in Roman hands until 433 CE, when it was ceded to Attila the Hun. After the Huns, the Eastern Roman Empire took over the southern parts of Pannonia, only for that territory to be invaded by the Avars and Slavs. Cities like Brčko, Gradiška, and Doboj in today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina were notable in that frontier zone during the time period.

Both Dalmatia and Pannonia flourished under Roman rule, especially in the second century. The Romans built temples, baths, theaters, and roads. We even have evidence of sophisticated cultural exchange, such as a bronze head of Medusa, dated between 100 and 300 CE, found in Fojnica, not far from Sarajevo—clearly showing that Roman culture seeped inland. Christianity arrived in the 4th century but largely stayed confined to the coast.

The Goths were another group that interacted with the Illyrians, and I have not spent too much time on them. According to Noel Malcolm, in his book Bosnia: A Short History, the Goths who settled and eventually passed through this region were rapidly assimilated. There’s no Gothic-based vocabulary found in any Balkan language, not even a single word, according to Malcolm. A relatively recent mythology had developed claiming that Croats and Bosnians actually descended from the Goths. Malcolm emphasizes there’s neither historical nor archaeological proof of such origins. [17]

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During the next few centuries the Illyrian identity, language, and society slowly faded as the Roman influence took over. After the destruction of Illyrian states, and the migration of Celts and Slavs, the region started to take on a new form.

And that brings us to the end of today’s episode. We’ve covered the Illyrian rise, the Roman response, and the centuries of conflict and assimilation that turned these lands into Roman provinces. In the next episode, we’ll shift our attention to the early Slavs, tracing their movements across Europe and their arrival in the Balkans—an event that would again reshape the region in dramatic ways.

Thank you so much for listening to The History of Bosnia and Herzegovina Podcast. I’d love to hear your thoughts, so please visit the show’s website at historyofbosnia.com or check out the links in the episode description for more ways to reach me. If you found this episode informative or engaging, consider rating and reviewing it on your podcast platform—it really helps. Until next time, take care, and I’ll talk to you soon.

Sources:

  1. Wilkes, John. 1992. The Illyrians. Cambridge, Mass., USA: B. Blackwell.
  2. Polybius. 1980. The Rise of the Roman Empire, Book 6.16. Penguin Classics.
  3. Montagu, John Drogo. 2000. Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31BC, from the Historians of the Ancient World. England: Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal.
  4. Appian. 1899. The Foreign Wars. New York: Horace White. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0230:text=Ill.:chapter=1
  5. Livy. Periochae. https://topostext.org/work/658 
  6. Wilkes, John. 1969. Dalmatia. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Harvard University Press.
  7. Šašel-Kos, Marjeta. 2010. “Pannonia or Lower Illyricum?” Tyche Beitrage zur Alten Geschichte, Paryrologie und Epigraphik. Volume 25: 123-130.
  8. Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/6400/6400-h/6400-h.htm 
  9. Cassius Dio. 1989. Roman History, Vol 6, Books. 51–65. Cambridge, Mass. USA: Loeb Classical Library. 
  10. Velleius Paterculus. 1924. Compendium of Roman History. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Loeb Classical Library. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/home.html 
  11. William Smith. 1873. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. London: Spottiswoode and Co.
  12. Mommsen, Theodor & Dickson, William Purdie & Haverfield, Francis. 2004. The Provinces of the Roman Empire: From Caesar to Diocletian. New Jersey, USA: Gorgias Press LLC.
  13. Stipčević, Alexander. 1989. Iliri: povijest, život, kultura. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
  14. Damascius. 1967. Epitome Photiana.
  15. Bury, J. B. 1923. History of the Later Roman Empire. London: Macmillan.
  16. Burns, Thomas. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN, USA: Indiana University Press. 
  17. Malcolm, Noel. 1996. Bosnia: A Short History. New York, USA: New York University Press. 
  18. Mesihović, Salmedin & Šačić, Amra. 2015. Historija Ilira [History of Illyrians] (in Bosnian). Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Univerzitet u Sarajevu [University of Sarajevo]. 
  19. Hammond, Nicholas G.L. 1993. Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Hakkert.