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Episode 2: The Illyrians

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Welcome to episode 2 of the History of Bosnia and Herzegovina podcast. I’m your host, Haris Porčić. In our last episode, we explored the prehistoric roots of the Balkans. Today, we step into the Iron Age and Classical Period, an era when written history first takes shape, and some of the world’s most influential empires leave their indelible marks on this region. We’ll witness how these emerging powers shaped not only the Balkans, but also set cultural and political currents that still ripple across the globe.

Picture a rugged landscape stretching across what we now call the western Balkans. It’s around 2,500 BCE, and new cultures are forming, woven from the threads of Neolithic Balkan people, Indo-European newcomers, and—especially in the north—migrating Celts. This gives rise to the various tribes we collectively call the Illyrians. [1] [2]

From the start, it’s important to note that there was never a monolithic “Illyrian” group. Instead, the name “Illyrians” likely came from a single tribe that came into contact with the Ancient Greeks. Over time, that label spread to cover an array of communities that shared certain customs and languages. [3] The first recorded mention of these people comes from the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus in the late 6th century BCE, who depicted them, rather dismissively, as “barbarians.” [5]

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Due to their proximity to the Greeks, the southern Illyrians appear most prominently in early records. One of their oldest known kingdoms was the Enchelei, which flourished in what is now Albania, Montenegro, and North Macedonia during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. [4] Before long, they gave way to other tribes such as the Dassaretii and the Taulantii. Notably, none of these early power centers occupied what is modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, and therefore I won’t spend any more time on them. [5]

Despite the use of titles like “kingdom,” Illyrian tribes generally remained small. Rulers established their authority through prowess in battle, and governance structures varied: some tribes had hereditary royalty, others were ruled by chiefs chosen for their leadership skills, and still others functioned as autonomous communities. A rigid social hierarchy was not the norm. [6]


Most of what we know about the Illyrians comes from neighbors—often enemies—such as the Greeks and Romans. As is common in ancient writings, outsiders tended to view these tribes with contempt, painting them as warlike and unpredictable.[1] This was especially true of the coastal Illyrians, who became infamous for seafaring and piracy. [1] [7] Their small, agile ships were so effective that both the Romans and Macedonians eventually copied the designs. [8]

Describing them as “bloodthirsty” and “savage” was commonplace. [9] A Roman civil servant, Herodian, once claimed the Illyrians were “tall and strong, always ready for a fight and to face danger, but slow-witted.” [1] Historian Danijel Džino suggests that the Illyrians served as a “barbarian mirror” for Greek civilization—a convenient foil that highlighted what the Greeks believed set themselves apart. In this way, Illyria became a boundary zone between the known world of the Mediterranean and the unfamiliar lands beyond.

Because the Illyrians left behind no written records of their own, their story was primarily shaped by the Greeks and Romans. This pattern of having history written about the people of the Balkans, rather than by them, recurs throughout the region’s past.

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Before the Roman conquest, what we know today as Bosnia and Herzegovina was home to several distinct Illyrian tribes. 

One of the larger and better-known tribes was the Daorsi, who lived in the Neretva River valley from around 300 to 50 BCE. Their capital was Daorson, located near present-day Stolac. The capital was built around a central fort, or acropolis, surrounded with walls made of large stone blocks. It housed all of the administrative, public, and religious buildings. Through early contact with Greek traders, they acquired certain aspects of Greek culture—often referred to as Hellenization—and became recognized for minting their own coins. [13] [14] Remnants of Greek mythological deities have been found in Daorson, along with sculptures of snakes and eagle’s wings. 

The Autariatae were active between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE in the southern parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. [1] [4] The Greek geographer Strabo identified them as one of the three most powerful Illyrian peoples, prior to Roman expansion. [20] The Autariatae also famously stood against Alexander the Great. [21]

Moving along, the Ardiaei kingdom extended across areas of modern Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, and Croatia, reaching as far north as Konjic in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE. Because they bordered the Adriatic Sea, they frequently clashed with Greek forces and proved to be a formidable enemy of the Roman Empire. [1]

Next, we have the Daesitiates, who were centered in what is now central Bosnia. Their community with clearly defined political, social, and economic structure flourished from the 4th century BCE into the early 3rd century CE. [1] [2] Thanks to fertile lands and rich metal resources, they held considerable influence in the region. Their resistance to Rome around the start of the 1st century CE was fierce. Although ultimately defeated in 9 AD, they remained significant until the 3rd century. One of their notable leaders was the legendary Bato the Daesitiate, whom we will discuss in greater detail in a future episode.

Even though this was one of the biggest, and arguably, the most consequential tribes in modern-day Bosnia, not much is known about them via the written record. Majority of our knowledge comes from archeological findings, even though the region has not received much attention from archeologists, compared to other parts of Europe. They first appear in written records around 33 BCE, and then in 6 CE during the period of the Batonian war. [24]

Farther northwest, from roughly 550 BCE to 300 CE, lived the Mazaei, occupying the northern part of Bosnia. Although little is documented about them, we do know that Emperor Germanicus eventually brought them under Roman control.[1] [18]

Another large group to the west, the Dalmatae, first emerged in the written record around 181 BCE. They lived in what is now southern Croatia and western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The term “Dalmatia” comes from this tribe’s name. Their capital city, Delminium, was located near Tomislavgrad in Bosnia. [1] [2]

They were one of the first tribes to encounter and battle with the Romans, not including the southern Illyrian tribes outside of the present-day Bosnia. In 156 BCE, Rome, at the time still a republic, sent an expedition across the Adriatic and marched toward Delminium to face the Dalmatian army. Although the capital was fortified and protected, the Romans laid siege and a year later the Dalmatians surrendered. The city and the fortifications were utterly destroyed and turned into a sheep pasture. The tribe was again attacked by Rome in 118 BCE, not for any strategic military reasons, but to procure another family triumph by a Roman consul. [15] We will discuss the Roman wars and conquests in greater detail next episode, so I’ll leave it there.

Finally, the Iapodes lived in central Croatia and the Una River Valley of Bosnia from at least the 9th century BCE and remained there for over a millennium. [1] [22] Scholars are divided on whether they were Illyrian, Pannonian, Celtic, or a mixture of these cultures. Those labels don’t really matter, because we know almost certainly that they never identified as any of these groups. According to Strabo, they were a blended race who tattooed themselves and often engaged in raiding expeditions. In 34 BCE, they fell under the control of Roman emperor Augustus Caesar, also known as Octavian. [23]

We lack comprehensive material evidence of this group – as is the norm in this region. The first written record of the group comes at around 6th century BCE. They were influenced by Celtic migrations, but only along their northern borders, while the rest of the area was largely unaffected. 

The Iapodes lived in mostly wooden houses, due to the abundance of forests in the region. Their communities consisted between 400 and 3000 residents. They were an agricultural society where they cultivated cereals and grapes, kept cattle, and worked with metals.

Other lesser-known tribes, such as the Sardiatae , Andisetes, and Breuci, also inhabited the region. The Andisetes and Breuci both participated in the Great Illyrian Revolt against Rome. [1] A fun fact, the city of Brčko is named after the Breuci. That about summarizes the main players in our part of the Balkans.

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The Illyrians most likely spoke Indo-European languages, though very little of their linguistic heritage survives beyond personal names, place names, and words scattered in ancient sources. [10] Given their wide geographical spread, it’s likely that multiple dialects or languages existed, many of which disappeared between the 2nd and 6th centuries CE. A surviving branch of these Illyrian tongues ultimately gave rise to modern Albanian. [11] [12]

While we do not have much information on the exact languages spoken, there is evidence that they were spoken well into the Roman period. It is a mystery why the language was not written down by the Greeks, even though their historians state the existence of bilingual speakers of Greek and Illyrian. [1]

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In matters of faith, the Illyrians were polytheistic, venerating natural forces and symbols; the three most notable are the sun, serpent, and horsemen—though it remains unclear whether all tribes honored the same deities. Archeological evidence shows a reverence for supernatural powers, protective amulets, and belief in the evil eye. These customs are familiar and still echo in the popular practices of today’s Balkans. [1] [4]

During this period, the Illyrian Sun-deity was represented as the god of the sky and lightning, inscribed on statues, monuments, and even coins during the Roman period. These deities come from proto-Indo-European mythology. Illyrians often depicted the solar deity as an animal, usually a bird, serpent, or a horse. The most frequently found symbols are of waterfowl: birds like ducks, geese, and swans. These depictions were more common amongst the Illyrians that resided in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The deity was also depicted geometrically; for example: as a spiral, a concentric circle, or a swastika. 

The sun worship traditions can still be seen in present-day Balkans. For example, Albanians light bonfires on peaks of mountains or hills during Summer Day, an Albanian spring festival and pagan holiday. Up until the 20th century Albanians and Catholics in Bosnia and Herzegovina were known to tattoo symbols of the sun on themselves, a tradition that predates the Slavic migration. [25]

Secondly, Serpent worship was widespread in the southern Illyrian regions. [4] The serpent symbolized potency and fertility: both of the earth and the woman. The Illyrians used the serpent as an ornament and it was depicted on many decorative items. [1]

And finally, the horseman was also a common object of worship, dating back before the migration of proto-Indo-European religions. The horsemen were depicted as warriors in battle, and usually accompanied with serpents as protectors. 

When it came to burial rituals, cremation was more prevalent in the north—likely influenced by the Celtic newcomers—while burial remained common elsewhere. Over time, Roman influence gradually phased out cremation as a primary practice. [1] [4]

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Let’s look at what was happening around the Illyrians during this time, and how that will impact their future outlook. 

The Ancient and Classical Greek culture to the south of the Illyrians was in full swing. This age saw the flourishing of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Macedonia was expanding under Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great. Early mathematics, philosophy, politics, and literature were being developed during this time. The Greeks were preoccupied with fending off Persians and the ever growing Macedonian empire, and mostly left the Illyrians alone.

Rome was also being developed; first as a settlement in the 8th century BCE, then as a kingdom, and then as a Republic in 509 BCE. Rome expanded first through the Italian peninsula, then to the Mediterranean. Romans didn’t have a major impact on the Balkan peninsula until the 2nd century BCE, as mentioned earlier. 

Thracians were another group that inhabited the lands around the Illyrians. They mostly resided in present-day Bulgaria, Romania, North Macedonia, Greece, and Turkey. Much like the Illyrians, the Greek and Roman historians regarded the Thracians as uncivilized, barbarians, and war-like. Also like the Illyrians, they were gradually conquered by Rome in the 2nd century BCE. Interesting fact: Spartacus, the famous gladiator and a leader of the major slave uprising against Rome, was a Thracian.

As mentioned at the top of the episode, to the north of the Illyrians were the Celts, specifically the Gauls. They emerged from the west of the Alps and started migrating and intermingling with the Illyrians. The Gauls also pushed into the Carpathian region and moved south towards Greece. Their invasion of Thrace and Greece ultimately failed, and many settled in a region in modern-day Turkey that bears their name, Galicia. 

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From the very beginning, the Illyrians were cast in the role of outsiders, a group whose story was told through foreign eyes. Yet these tribes left a tangible imprint on the lands they inhabited. They built alliances, fought wars, minted coins, and shaped the cultural fabric of the western Balkans. Their languages, though largely extinct, still reverberate in the Albanian tongue. Their myths and religious practices live on in folk customs, passing through centuries of cultural shifts.

In many ways, studying the Illyrians means sifting through layers of bias, distortion, and time. Still, their resilience and adaptability—whether by land or by sea—helped define an entire region’s early history. As we continue our journey through the Balkans, we’ll see how this pattern of “history written about us” recurs, shaping the way communities in this region have perceived themselves and been perceived by others.

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And with that, we’ll close out the episode for today. Next time we will explore the Roman incursion and the fall of the Illyrians as we have come to know them. I hope that you enjoyed today’s content, and I would love to hear your thoughts. You can find ways to reach me on the website historyofbosnia.com. Links to the site and socials are in the notes. If you found this episode informative or entertaining, please consider rating and reviewing it on your podcast platform. Thank you for listening, and I’ll talk to you next time. 

Sources:

  1. Wilkes, John. 1992. The Illyrians. Cambridge, Mass., USA: B. Blackwell.
  2. Džino, Danijel. 2014.  “Constructing Illyrians: Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula in Early Modern and Modern Perceptions.” Balkanistica, Volume 27:1-39.
  3. Boardman, John. 1982. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume III, Part I: The Prehistory of the Balkans; the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
  4. Stipčević, Alexander. 1989. Iliri: povijest, život, kultura. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
  5. Matijasić, Ivan. 2011. “‘Shrieking like Illyrians’. Historical Geography and the Greek Perspective of the Illyrian World in the 5th Cent. BC”. Arheološki Vestnik, Volume 62. http://av.zrc-sazu.si/En/62/Matijasic_AV_62.html
  6. Šašel Kos, Marjeta. 1993. “Cadmus and Harmonia in Illyria.” Arheološki Vestnik, Volume 44.
  7. Møller, Bjørn. 2008.  “Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Naval Strategy.” Danish Institute for International Studies.
  8. Dell, Harry J. 1967. “The Origin and Nature of Illyrian Piracy.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Volume 16: 344-58.
  9. Eckstein, Arthur M. 2009. Rome Enters the Greek East: From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230-170 BC. Wiley-Blackwell.
  10. Mallory, James P. &  Adams, Douglas Q. 1997. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
  11. Fol, Aleksandŭr. 2002. “Thrace and the Aegean: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Thracology, Sofia – Yambol, 25–29 September 2000.” International Foundation Europa Antiqua: 25.
  12. Prendergast, E. H. 2017. “The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area.” UC Berkeley. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6
  13. Basler, Đuro & Filipović, Mirza & Balić, Sulejman. 1987. The Art treasures of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  14. Lippert, Andreas & Matzinger, Joachim. 2021. Die Illyrer: Geschichte, Archäologie und Sprache. Germany: Kohlhammer Verlag.
  15. Appian. 1899. The Foreign Wars. New York: Horace White. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0230:text=Ill.:chapter=1
  16. Pašalić, Esad. 1960. “Antička naselja i komunikacije u Bosni i Hercegovini (in Bosnian).” Zemaljski Muzej.
  17. M. Šašel Kos, P. Kos, R. Talbert, Sean Gillies, Michael Heubel, Ryan Horne, Jeffrey Becker, Richard Talbert, and Tom Elliott. 2022.  “Maezaei: a Pleiades place resource.” Pleiades: A Gazetteer of Past Places. https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/197364 
  18. Pliny the Elder. 1855. The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis.
  19. Mesihović, Salmedin. 2014. ΙΛΛΥΡΙΚΗ (Ilirike) (in Bosnian). Sarajevo: Filozofski fakultet u Sarajevu. 
  20. Strabo. ed. H. L. Jones. 1924. The Geography of Strabo. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D11
  21. Vujčić, Nemanja. 2021. “The City of Pelion and the Illyrian War of Alexander”. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies: 486-497.
  22. Shelley, William S. 1997. The origins of the Europeans: classical observations in culture and personality. International Scholars Publications
  23. Strabo. 1903. The Geography of Strabo. Literally translated, with notes, in three volumes. London: George Bell & Sons. 
  24. Dzino, Danijel. 2009. “Dezidijati: Identitetski konstrukt između antičkih i suvremenih percepcija.” Godišnjak Centra Za Balkanološka Ispitivanja, Volume 38, Issue 36: 75–96.
  25. Tirta, Mark. 2004. Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë (in Albanian). Tirana: Mësonjëtorja.